A Brief History of Christian Engagement with Sport
The following post analyzes and traces the history of Christian engagement with sports over two thousand years. The four distinct eras in history we will explore are pre-modernity, modernity, globalization, and contemporary trends. In each period, we'll answer two questions: How did historical and cultural forces influence Christian engagement with sports? And what were the theological priorities and convictions emphasized by different Christian communities?
Pre-modernity: BC-1650
The era of pre-modernity can be viewed in three stages: the early church (10-450), the medieval period (476-1450), and the protestant reformation (1517-1650).
Early Church (10-450)
The genesis of sport in Europe can be traced back to early Greco-Roman military conquests. When the battle finished, the victors engaged in sport-like activities to celebrate. In fact, any training that took place was done for war. The idea of training physically was not connected to sports—or even leisurely. Greek philosophers looked at post-war sports and began to philosophize about life, sport, and the athlete. Paul and other early Christian leaders adopted "sports as a metaphor for life" one step further by comparing it to our spiritual lives. In his book, Catholic Perspectives on Sports, Patrick Kelly explains that early Christian leaders would go as far as comparing martyrs of the faith to athletes who "take the blow and yet win the fight" (Kelly 99)
Christians were under the rule of the Romans at this time. And the empire prioritized barbaric games and public shows as an early form of sport. Some of which included the persecution of Christians. As Shirl Hoffman writes in his book Good Game: Christianity and the Culture of Sports, these spectacles "represent in microcosm all that was wrong with Roman society." In light of these games, early Christians wrestled with whether to adapt to Greco-Roman ways and attend or be set apart from the crowd and risk shame (at best) or death (at worst). The theological priorities of these early Christians revolved around four topics:
1. Idolatry - The games and festivals existed to worship the gods, a stark contrast from the Christian call to serve and worship God alone. Novatian’s On the Public Shows argues that public shows exist for idolatry as their very purpose was consecrating to idols.
2. Immorality - The games were barbaric. They "purveyed and stimulated immorality" (Hoffman 37).
3. Idleness - The games force the attendees to care about "childish factiousness."
4. Gnosticism/dualism - One of the driving theological issues for these early Christians was a belief that God only cares about the mind and not the body.
Medieval Period (476-1450)
The beginning of the medieval era brought about new questions about Christian engagement with sport. As Christianity became the official religion in Rome thanks to Constantine in the early fourth century, a new theological priority of pursuing virtuous living began to emerge. This meant looking at things, like sports, and asking questions like “If we engage in this, either as a spectator or as a participant, over time, will it make us more Godly or less?”
This was a significant change from the first few centuries, where Christians associated sports largely with idolatry (or at best, a metaphor for life). The other theological principles were largely set by the Roman Catholic Church. This meant an emphasis on the theological virtues of faith, hope, and love/charity, as well as the cardinal virtues of prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance. With the shift from Christianity being under the emperor to being the official religion, Christians needed a framework to determine what is permissible within a culture and what should be banished altogether. The virtues provided this theological grid for Godly living. Thus, virtues became central to how Christians in this era thought about and interacted with sports.
The impact of the Crusades during this era cannot be ignored either. Considered to be a holy war (God-honoring), the church seemingly flip-flopped on their opinion of sporting events like jousting. Are we just wasting horses/money and injuring our knights who could be fighting in the Crusades (Hoffman 52)? Or should we keep the sport of jousting, as it elevates the position of the knight in our society? After all, more knights mean more fighting men for the Crusades. Christian leaders often tried to align thinking about sport with their own self-interest. The Humanist and Jesuit schools played a big cultural role as well. As Kelly writes, “games and sports were an important part of Catholic medieval and early modern societies in Europe” (Kelly 62). As the Humanists and Jesuits planned out their curriculum, they believed sports and play provided necessary mental relief for the kids each day. This line of thinking was largely influenced by Thomas Aquinas’s teachings. As Aquinas once said, “man's mind would break if its tension were never relaxed.” Aquinas was largely influenced by Aristotle, who said "in the intercourse of this life there is a kind of rest that is associated with games.”
While sports may not be seen as intrinsically virtuous (yet), beneficial aspects are progressing through the pre-modernist era that is becoming hard to ignore for Christians and Christian leaders.
Protestant Reformation (1517-1650)
The emergence of the Puritans after the Protestant Reformation surfaced two main themes. The first was a rejection of sport’s connection with the Catholic festivals and feast days. As Hoffman stated: “The Protestant Reformation severed the relationship that had existed between the medieval church and sports, games, and popular culture” (Hoffman 73). As the Puritans sought to purify the church back to what they thought Christ originally intended, rejecting the formerly pagan holidays meant initially rejecting the sporting activities that Catholics connected to them.
Another difference revolved around how Catholics and Protestants viewed sports on Sunday. For the Catholics, sports after a Sunday service was not only accepted but celebrated. Puritans, on the other hand, viewed Sunday as a day set aside for devotion—and sport-like activities were seen as unacceptable on the Lord’s Day.
One of the primary theological priorities of Christians during this reformation was continually wrestling with the question: what is the purpose of the Sunday sabbath? Is it for rest? Is it for devotion? Is it for worship? And what is allowable for the Christian to do and not do? Sports were one of the driving factors in this ongoing conversation. The King James Book of Sports speaks to a tension point between Catholics, who allowed sports on Sunday (continental sabbath) after service, and the Puritans, who thought it was sinful to engage in sports on Sunday (Puritan sabbath). The declaration from King James became an important historical hinge point for this issue as he sought to take a middle-ground position with the Church of England to allow certain activities (“harmless recreation”) after Sunday service.
One fascinating note from the King's Book of Sports was his insistence that prohibiting sports on Sunday would hinder opportunities for Protestants to convert Catholics. Was this the first semblance of a sports ministry?
While the conversation around Sunday sports saw both Catholics and Protestants put their stakes in the ground, it would be wrong to think Protestants had a mainly negative view of sports. Leading Puritans of the era, Martin Luther and John Calvin, both participated in sports and found value through participation in them. Luther seemed to pioneer what Athletes in Action now refers to as a “focal point” as he often visualized knocking down the bowling pins as knocking down Satan.
Calvin appeared to be the first Christian to suggest that sports could have intrinsic (not just instrumental) value. He believed that God’s creation was a gift to be enjoyed, in appropriate moderation, and sports fell into a category of God’s good gifts.
But it wasn’t just Christian leaders who influenced how Christians viewed sports during this period. The rivalry between the Roman Catholics and the Church of England often determined how sport was viewed.
Modernity (1800-1930)
The second of our four historical periods is the time of modernity. In the mid-nineteenth century, a movement called Muscular Christianity was born in England. This was a movement aimed at helping Christians pay more attention to their bodies and give more value to the physical world. Dr. Paul Putz notes that the movement was a “necessary correction” as Christians began rejecting a dualistic theology that pitted the physical (bad) and spiritual (good) against one another. Of course, it was not without its flaws. As Hoffman pointed out through one of muscular Christianity’s early critics, it “redefined a saint as one who can walk a thousand miles in a thousand hours” (Hoffman 119).
As protestant Christians opened their theology up to the idea of valuing the body, mind, and spirit, they democratized this idea through the installment of the YMCA. However, the YMCA often shifted its position as it wrestled with just how much value to place on both faith and sport. “From the outset, the evangelical purpose of the YMCA was clear and firm, the methods flexible” (Baker 47). It’s a generous way of saying the YMCA changed its position—a lot.
Luther Gulick, an early leader of the YMCA, believed the gym could be a place of spiritual formation. Eager to learn under Gulick’s tutelage, James Naismith moved to Springfield, IL in 1890 and joined Gulick at the YMCA. Dr. Gulick asked Naismith to create a new game. His challenge was finding something that was void of the violence and roughness that existed in most games at the time. One of the reasons was to decrease injuries—and broken glass inside the YMCA. But another core reason for Naismith was a deep conviction that sport could build character. In 1891, Naismith came up with the sport of basketball.
The ongoing question of whether or not sports should be played on Sunday continues to be a significant theological priority that does not come closer to a resolution. The nuanced discussion around the Sunday Sabbath includes theology, geographic location, race, and class. World War I was even a significant factor in the Sabbath discussion because “compared to the dangers of war, Sunday sport seemed innocuous” (Baker 161).
The cultural context cannot be ignored. This time is bracketed by the end of the Civil War (1865) and the end of WWI (1920). It’s the period of the industrial revolution. The ushering in of the industrial revolution shortened the work week, brought people into closer proximity, and lessened the demands of physical labor. All of those factors gave Christians more time and more energy that needed to be expended. People had time on their hands and money to spend (Baker 23). In the history of sport, the industrial revolution is a significant inflection point. It paved the way for sport to become more than play or military training, or even resting of the mind. It became a structured and organized business.
With professional team sports emerging, the return of the modern Olympics, and the formation of both college and high school sports, Christians were, in a sense, forced to deal with sports. It almost has a Greco-Roman vibe, just more civil. In the early Christian era, Christians were forced to deal with the brutal realities of sport because they were under the control of the Roman empire. In the late nineteenth century to early twentieth century, Christians were forced to deal with the realities of organized sports because they permeated every aspect of life, from the newspapers to the labor force.
Race, Faith, and Sport
The story of sport during this period can’t be accurately told without understanding the impact of race and segregation. The historical context helps frame these complex realities for black athletes. From 1865 (the end of the Civil War) to 1877, America was in a time of reconstruction. African Americans became citizens, had the right to vote, and were granted more rights. But many white southerners were bitter about this new reality and actively pushed against it. When reconstruction ended in 1877, segregation expanded as laws were put in place to exclude black Americans. The impact of this rippled into the athletic community. Black Christian leaders, shunned from the local YMCAs, launched their own YMCAs as black athletes took to the courts to become leaders in the racial justice movement. Black athletes formed “sporting congregations.” Dr. Putz describes these congregations as communities of black leaders who found meaning and significance through their shared participation in sport. Edwin Henderson, the “father of black basketball,” played an instrumental role in introducing the game of basketball to black athletes as he believed sports could help work towards racial justice and inclusion.
Women, Faith, and Sport
Black athletes were not the only people excluded from athletic opportunities during this time. Women started playing basketball soon after Naismith invented it in 1891. It was one of the first opportunities they had to play a team sport and they initially struggled with the value of sportsmanship that Naismith placed upon the game. Somewhat like the black athletes, women were forced to embrace the limitations society placed on them. Led by women like Senda Berenson, they created congregation-type communities around the sport. Berenson rejected the commonly held belief that women were frail and dependent. She became an early pioneer in using sports, like basketball, to develop the physical side of women.
Globalization (1930-1980)
The third historical era to explore is the period of globalization. The Cold War’s influence over this era is significant. With the rise of the Soviet Union, there was a heightened desire to prioritize an American identity—and one of the key ways to do that was through faith in God (Baker 197). Sports also became a way to "be American" as youth sports took off, coaching opportunities sprung up, and sports were adopted as an American way of life. As Americans leveraged faith and sport as an antidote to "godless Communism," we begin to see the theological priorities of returning to the Church and mass evangelism through athletes in this era take root (Baker 193).
One of the key figures leading this evangelistic charge was Billy Graham. As Baker notes, "Graham quickly caught on to the benefits of using the testimonies of sports figures to call attention to the gospel" (195). Even the language Baker used in that quote of "using" athletes' testimonies speaks to the strategy. Athletes were a marketing tool, selling the product of Jesus to the masses. Following the lead of Billy Graham, sports ministries began to emerge during this era through pioneers like Don McClenan (FCA in 1954) and David Hannah (AIA in 1966).
The theological principles shaping this era include the continuing movement of Muscular Christianity which takes on a new organizational form through the Fellowship of Christian Athletes. Another theological priority was racial inclusion as sports ministries like FCA fully supported desegregation.
Race, Faith, and Sport II
The revolt of the black athlete is probably more ideological than theological, but it’s a hinge moment in this conversation on race and sport as well. This revolt was based on the belief that black involvement in sports was not enough. There was more that needed to be done. And this helped lead to the second wave of the Civil Rights Movement. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X were key influential figures in the movement. The rise of sport ministries, led by white protestants and funded largely by white protestants, were slow to assimilate, not wanting to “rock the boat” with their support base through involvement in racial activism—even if it was non-violent.
In many ways, the life of Jackie Robinson personified the cultural story of faith, race, and sports for Christian black athletes during this era. Like many before him, he saw involvement in sports as the win and believed in being humble and turning the other cheek. By the time of the black athlete revolt, Jackie Robinson, though no longer playing baseball, believed in nonviolent activism (like MLK), not merely playing, was the correct posture for black Christian athletes.
Women, Faith, and Sport II
The 1960s brought about the second wave of feminism as women organized and fought for social equality and reproductive rights. Sports become part of the broader feminist movement and a place where women could claim a place of leadership. During this context, Title 9 was passed in 1972. The NCAA initially fought the inclusion of Title 9, which focuses on schools (not just sports) and legislates against discrimination. As a result, The Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) became a women-led space for high-level competition for women in college. In the early 1980s, the NCAA reversed its course, embraced Title 9, and took over women's sports. It’s worth noting that before title 9, Christian engagement with sport, in general, supported women's involvement in competition. For women working on farms in the south, it wasn’t a huge stretch to see them play sports, unlike more progressive locations like New York. Their involvement in sports was seen as compatible with what it means to be a Christian. It wasn't “challenging” the system. Catholic churches had basketball leagues. People like Patsy Neal were accepted into FCA. Cindy Smith started sports ministry in 1976 through FCA.
Despite these realities, Christian women involved in sports were faced with a constant dilemma: Do they conform to Christian expectations of what it means to be a woman or fully express themselves as athletes? At the same time, their faith often felt unwanted and unwelcome in progressive spaces. Christian women in sports were often stuck between two camps and struggled to feel fully at home in either one.
Contemporary Trends (1980-present)
Our last era is highlighted by five models of engaging in faith and sport that build upon the work of sports ministries from the previous era—as well as the rise of youth sports. The five models of sports theology are represented by the five Christian leaders below who pioneered sports ministries based on their theological bent.
John Wooden believed that Christian character is developed naturally through sports—and that the development of character best positions you to win.
Bill Glass followed the model set by Billy Graham and placed a strong emphasis on evangelism. He believed that it was a Christian priority to maximize their talent to elevate their evangelical platform. He was also an early pioneer in the area of psychology and the mental aspect of sport.
Wes Neal of Athletes in Action believed the Christian faith must be lived out at all times, including within the context of sports. Sport could be a form of worship to God. He believed “spiritual” Christians' access to the Holy Spirit gives them an edge when it comes to performance.
Tom Skinner, the first black chaplain in sports ministry, saw athletes and coaches as part of a greater community. He prioritized participation in sports as a communal benefit for others.
Shirl Hoffman believes Christians must rediscover the value of play in sports. He thinks there is an inordinate amount of value placed on winning.
While other models of engagement of faith and sport exist, these five have proven to have decades of staying power during this era.
The theological issue of idolatry is one consistent thread woven through the story of sport and Christian engagement since the first century. Of all things, that seems to be a common ground that all Christians, even to this day, have struggled to identify the clear line between the worship of God and the worship of sport—or even the worship of self through sport.
Youth Sports
We see tremendous continuity with the theme of idolatry within youth sports. We can see it in parents making an idol out of their kids through sports. Their involvement (car rides, intensity from the sidelines, money spent) also reflects making an idol out of their present kid and his or her projected future athletic self. We also see it in kids who make an idol out of how they look—wanting the latest and greatest gear. Even the issue of youth sports falls under the category of “there is nothing new under the sun.” Back in the late 1970s, FCA staff member Gary Warner said that “If our goal is to produce skilled professionals and Olympic champions at the expense of play and fun, youth league sports are on target. If our goal is to produce a nation of playing, active, sport-involved-people-for-a-lifetime, then the youth sport concept needs overhauling.”
And what about Sunday? Throughout history, Christians in almost every era have wrestled with whether or not it is permissible to engage in sports on Sunday. It seems another shift in the conversation is taking place now. Instead of expecting the congregation (youth sports parents and kids) to sacrifice the weekend Church service, the weight often falls on the Church to provide extra opportunities for involvement (digital options, multiple weekend services, weekday opportunities). The voices encouraging attendance at Sunday service seem to be giving way to the demands placed on parents (or what they place on themselves) with youth sport involvement.
What’s next?
Lastly, with the advancement of technology and access to the internet and social media, there are a growing number of voices at the intersection of faith and sport. New sports ministries are starting. Chaplaincy can be found within most professional sports. Esports are growing in popularity. And all of these voices involved in the ongoing conversation of faith and sport are building on top of the foundation laid by faithful men and women who have wrestled with what it means to be a Christian athlete over the last two thousand years.
Does this generation have it all figured out? Are we practicing it and thinking about it better than generations before us? Who knows. Each culture has its own context. Within that context, Christians have done their best with the resources at their disposal. For us, the best we can do is live faithfully, biblically, and in community with others—and trust God will give us the conviction of how to properly glorify Him through the gift He gave us in sports.
